History of Ancient Chinese Architecture
China's earliest prehistoric structures were born at the juncture of the Old and New Stone Age about 1O,OOO years ago, when primitive agriculture began to emerge and people's desire to settle in one place began to become stronger. Structures, which showed the earliest initial demand for beauty, i.e., the artistic demand in its broad sense, appeared in the middle and later parts of the New Stone Age around 4,OOO years BC. In terms of a structural system, traditional Chinese structures ended in the early 2Oth century.
In the long process of development, China's architecture has consistently kept intact the basic character of the system. Its entire history can be divided into several major stages. For example, the period from the Shinju and Thou dynasties to In and Han dynasties was its embryonic growth stage; the Qin and Western Han dynasties were the first high tide of development; the period from Wei and Jin through to Sui, Tang and Song dynasties were a time of maturity and peaking. The achievements of the Tang and Song dynasties were even more brilliant, representing the second high tide, which can be regarded as the summit of Chinese architecture. The period from the Yuan to Ming and Qing dynasties were the enrichment and summary stage; and the period from the Ming to early Qing dynasty was the third high tide of development. It can be seen that each upsurge was correspondingly accompanied by the unification of the country, long-term stability, radical Cultural exchanges and other social backgrounds. For example, the unification of the Qin and Han dynasties accelerated exchanges between central plain culture and the Chu and Yue cultures. The unification of Sui and Tang dynasties increased the cultural exchanges between China and other Asian countries, as well as between north and south China; the unification of Ming and Qing dynasties strengthened exchanges among various Chinese nationalities and began the exchange of Chinese and Western architectural cultures. It can be said that unification, stability, economic prosperity, enhancement of national strength and cultural exchange are the internal opportunities for development of architectural art.
Traditional Chinese architecture is based mainly on Han architecture, comprising roughly 15 types such as city, palace, temple, mausoleum, monastery, Buddhist pagoda, grottoes, garden, government office, folk public building, landscape, tower and pavilion, imperial palace, residential house, great wall and bridge.
Based on the soil of China's long-term patriarchal society, China's architecture has gained the greatest achievements in palatial and capital city plans, giving prominence to the supremacy of authoritarianism and strict obsession of hierarchy, which are obviously different from the still higher achievements gained by European, Islamic or ancient Indian architecture in temple, church, mosque and other religious structures. The palace had its roots in the Xia Dynasty and reached its pinnacle in the Sui and Tang dynasties and became even more exquisite in the Qing Dynasty. The pattern of the complete capital city plan had been formed in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Importance was paid to standard rule and symmetry, giving prominence to the pattern of the imperial palace. In the Spring and Autumn Warring States Period when "courtesy disintegrated and music destroyed", the standardized pattern was somewhat damaged. But the Han Dynasty began to restore the standard rule and this process was completed in the Sui and Tang dynasties, and was enriched during the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Chang'an(present Xi'an), capital of the Sui and Tang dynasties, Dadu of Yuan Dynasty and Beijing of the Ming and Qing dynasties are the three capitals enjoying the highest reputation in Chinese history.
China's patriarchal and ethical concepts also influenced almost all structural types. For instance, the quasi-religious architectural altars and temples for worshipping deity and wise men and sages, as well as imperial mausoleums developed against the cultural backgrounds where in particular emphasis was placed on blood and clan relationship, and importance was attached to such concepts as "carefully attending to the funeral rites of parents and following them when gone with due sacrifices" and "taking death as life". They were structural types almost unique to China, their grand scale and their solemn and respectful atmosphere became the focus of attention.
Buddhism from India was the main religion prevailing in China, and Buddhist structures such as temples and pagodas emerged. But although subjected to Indian influence in the early stages, they quickly began the process of becoming Chinese-style structures, giving expression to the esthetic standards and cultural character of the Chinese, filled with the atmosphere of tranquillity, peace and introversion, completely different from the extroverted, turbulent atmosphere of Western religious structures. Taoism is the indigenous religion of China, and Taoist temples, like Buddhist ones, have a serene charm. The pagoda occupies an important position in the history of China's architectural art, and find seven more distinctive expressions in terms of diverse types, rich forms, and the character of times and regions.
The Chinese cultural spirit, based on its high coordination with nature, shows ardent love and respect for nature. Structures seem to bean organic component of nature and are different from other architectural systems which place more emphasis on the contrast between artificiality and nature. This finds visible reflection in various types of Chinese structures, such as the selection and layout of sites for cities, villages, towns, tombs or residences. They find outstanding expression in garden sand belong to a natural type, different from European or Islamic geometric gardens. Chinese gardens are mainly imperial and private gardens. The latter give more expressions to the esthetic state of mind of literati and scholars. Existing gardens have the highest accomplishments in regions south of the Yangtze River, a fresh, beautiful and refined style and exquisite and ingenious technique; the former are developed mostly unearth China, and the largest existing concentration is in the Beijing area, which are huge in scale and have a beautiful style. Chinese gardens enjoy a high reputation in the world and are acclaimed as "mother of world gardens", by Europeans.
A variety of folk public structures, such as ancestral halls, temples wise men, temples of gods, guild halls, academies of classical learning and landscape towers and pavilions are mostly extant structures from Ming and Qing dynasties and are all, without exception, deeply influenced by the traditional cultural spirit. Residences are especially noteworthy. They not only vary in types and are diverse in forms, but can also face ordinary life more directly and vividly. The group culture and state of mind embodied in them are particularly sincere and simple. The regional features reflected in them are more outstanding. The beauty of their unique simplicity sometimes does not lie in the brilliant structure.
China's architecture pays particular attention to the beauty of group combination, and often adopts a central-axis, symmetric compact composition method. But some types, Such as gardens, certain mountain forest Taoist temples and certain residences adopt the method of free combination. No matter which composition method is adopted, great attention is paid to the pursuit of neutral, easy, reserved and deep esthetic characters, giving expressions to the esthetic habits of the Chinese nation.
Chinese architecture constitutes the only system based mainly on wooden structures of unique charming appearance. This differs from all other architectural systems in the world which are based mainly on brick and stone structures. A structure not only has its engineering and technical significance, but the structural and decorative beauty manifested in its resourceful and ingenious combination are themselves part of the architectural beauty .In the case of a wooden structural system, in particular, its complexity and delicacy are unmatched by brick and stone structures, and therefore demonstrate the wisdom of the Chinese. Further processing of the frame members of organic structures and other affiliated frame units forms unique Chinese constructional decoration, including interior and exterior decoration, color painting, wooden, brick and stone sculptures and color glaze, all of which contain very richtechniques and a vivid development process.
The structures of various minority nationalities of China, each with its graceful bearing, have enriched the overall charming appearance of Chinese architecture. Tibetan structures are deeply rooted in the soil of the unique Tibetan Buddhist Culture, although they have absorbed some images and techniques of Han nationality structures. Tibetan structures, however, have formed their own system. They contain unique features, Such as a grand scale, bright colors, and an unsophisticated and magnificent character .The Uygur has gained the greatest achievements in Islamic construction, which belongs to the global Islamic architectural system, a simple and charming model of quiet, meditative character. The Dai nationality believes in Buddhism, and their buildings are deeply influenced by Thai and Myanmar structures. Apart from balustrade-type residences of unique features, the graceful and exquisite temples and pagodas are even more charming. Although buildings of the Dong nationality are largely influenced by Han structures, they are renowned at home and abroad with their unique drum towers and weather-proof bridges. In addition, the Islamic structures of the Hui nationality, residences of the Naxi, Bai, Tujia and Korean nationalities all radiate their own splendor The architectural works of art of these ethnic groups, like stars glittering in the sky, jointly form the splendid Chinese architecture together with Han nationality structures.
Chinese architecture has spread to the vast East Asian region, including the countries of Korea, Japan, Viet Nam and Mongolia, which combine to form the East Asian architecture centered on China. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, China's architecture, particularly its horticulture differed completely from the Western one. It began to become known to Europe and exercised some influence. As far back as the Han and Jin dynasties, Chinese architecture had accepted influences from South and Central Asia, which had been merged into an organic part of Chinese architecture through the long process of history.
Today, based on its traditional soil, Chinese architecture has absorbed foreign architectural Culture and continued to forge ahead by complying with the requirements of Our time and using new architectural techniques. Over the past 1O-2O years, in particular, Chinese architecture, with the new period of reform and opening up as the turning-point, has stridden forward at a rapid pace and gained initial, gratifying achievements.
